Steel is enshrined in Richard Serra's work as his material of choice. This omnipresent metal – so much a part of our everyday lives – has played a key role in the profound changes wrought in the modern world since the industrial revolution. A chance to find out more about this unique material…
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. If the amount of carbon in the mix is over two per cent, the resulting metal is known as cast iron.
Steel was first used in Antiquity, but it was not manufactured systematically or on a large scale. For steel to exist in its present form, mankind had first to master the process of smelting iron ore in hearth furnaces heated using charcoal. This process produced a heterogeneous mass of solid iron, from which impurities had to be removed (by hammering it while still hot, for example), in order to obtain a metal that could be reworked. Lumps of steel might be found within this mass, and these would be kept to one side, to make spearheads or pointed ends for tools.
Blast furnaces first appeared in the 14th century, reaching far higher temperatures than the earlier hearth furnaces. Iron ore could now be transformed into liquid metal, with a high carbon content (the higher temperature allows for a more even distribution of the carbon released from the charcoal, throughout the metal). The resulting high quality cast iron could now be produced on an industrial scale in Europe.
Next, people had to learn how to transform cast iron into steel, by removing the carbon content. To do this, the Englishman Henry Bessemer invented a converter in 1856, later perfected by Sydney Thomas and Percy Gilchrist. The technique consisted of blowing air through the liquid molten iron, thereby removing part of the carbon content through oxidisation. This procedure enabled steel to be mass-produced, reducing its manufacturing costs and making it easier to use. Steel would now play an important part in the continuing industrialisation of the Western world.
Steel proved to be a remarkable construction material, offering numerous advantages: it was strong (resistant to traction and compression), hard (resistant to penetration by other substances), and resiliant (resistant to blows). Its properties revolutionised traditional building techniques. From the late 19th century onwards its use allowed for taller and more expansive buildings than ever before. Steel components could also be assembled in the factory, making the building process on site far easier.
Steel changed the face of architecture, and sculpture, too. The metal structure of the nave of the Grand Palais, opened in 1900, is a fine example. Later, in 1931, steel was the basic material used in the construction of the Empire State Building, New York's highest-ever skyscraper at the time (381 metres). Steel changed the ways in which architects conceived and structured empty space. Compared to stone structures, buildings and sculptures of steel are lighter, less 'monolithic' (quite literally), and less 'static'.
One of the main disadvantages of steel is its rapid corrosion. Various solutions have been found to alleviate the problem. The metal can, for example, be covered with a layer of protective paint, however this means regular, costly maintenance. So-called 'stainless' steel can also be used: this is obtained by adding a small quantity of nickel, chrome or other materials to the initial iron/carbon mix.
Steel alloys are also used to make so-called 'weathering' or 'self-weathering' steels, such as COR-TEN steel. These metals automatically generate their own protective layer, gradually producing a physical record of their surface's interaction with the atmosphere.
This type of steel is widely used in contemporary sculpture, by artists such as Eduardo Chillida and Bernar Venet, for example, but above all by Richard Serra, who has contributed to the material's popularity. In 2005, Serra created the largest work of art ever made using weatherable steel: The Matter of Time. This sculpture, which will be displayed at the Guggenheim in Bilbao for a period of 25 years, is one of the largest, most monumental works ever to go on show in a museum. Today, Richard Serra is directly associated with steel as an artistic medium, through a series of works that has completely revolutionised its use. In today's steel industry, making a work by Richard Serra represents a significant technical feat, and a major point of honour for the foundry concerned – a case of art playing a fundamental role in the evolution of industrial techniques, pushing their capabilities ever further. What, then, are Richard Serra's characteristic techniques as an artist? And how does he constantly renew and revitalise his vision of steel as an artistic medium?
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